1. The assembler is the system program that translate source code written in assembly language to object code( Machine Language) and other information for loader.

2. The following steps should be used to design an assembler : 1. Specify the problem 2. Specify data structures 3. Define format of data structures 4. Specify algorithm 5. Look for modularity(i.e capability of one program to be subdivided into independent programming units ) 6. Repeat 1 through 5 on modules

3. In this step assembler considers how to make the required information available. Consider the assembly statement MOVER BREG, ONE We must have the following information to synthesize the machine instruction corresponding to this statement: 1. Address of the memory word with which name ONE is associated, 2. Machine operation code corresponding to the mnemonic MOVER.

4. The second step in our design procedure is to establish the databases that we have to work with. Pass 1 Data Structures 1. Input source program 2. A Location Counter (LC), used to keep track of each instruction’s location. 3. A table, the Machine-operation Table (MOT), that indicates the symbolic mnemonic, for each instruction and its length (two, four, or six bytes)

5. 4. A table, the Pseudo-Operation Table (POT) that indicates the symbolic mnemonic and action to be taken for each pseudo-op in pass 1. 5. A table, the Symbol Table (ST) that is used to store each label and its corresponding value. 6. A table, the literal table (LT) that is used to store each literal encountered and its corresponding assignment location. 7. A copy of the input to be used by pass 2.

6. A copy of source program input pass1 1. Location counter(LC) to keep track of location of each instruction. 2. Machine Operation Table(MOT) that indicates for each instruction i) symbolic mnemonic ii) length iii) binary machine opcode iv) format of instruction. 3. Pseudo Operation Table(POT) that indicates symbolic mnemonic and action to be taken for each pseudo op in pass2 4. Symbol table(ST) prepared by pass1,containing each label and its corresponding value.

7. 5. Base Table(BT) that indicates which registers are currently specified as base registers and their contents. 6. Workspaces for a)holding various parts of instruction during assembling, b)producing a printed list 7. Storage for holding the copy of assembled instructions in the format needed by the loader

8. MOT: Format of machine operation table ‘b’ represents the “blank”

9. Begin read first input line if OPCODE = ‘START’ then begin save #[Operand] as starting addr initialize LC to starting address write line to intermediate file read next line end( if START) else initialize LC to 0 While OPCODE != ‘END’ do begin if this is not a comment line then begin if there is a symbol in the LABEL field then begin search ST for LABEL if found then

10. set error flag (duplicate symbol) else (if symbol) search OPTAB for OPCODE if found then add 3 (instr length) to LC else if OPCODE = ‘WORD’ then add 3 to LC else if OPCODE = ‘RESW’ then add 3 * #[OPERAND] to LC else if OPCODE = ‘RESB’ then add #[OPERAND] to LC else if OPCODE = ‘BYTE’ then begin find length of constant in bytes add length to LC end else

11. set error flag (invalid operation code) end (if not a comment) write line to intermediate file read next input line end { while not END} write last line to intermediate file Save (LC – starting address) as program length End {pass 1}

13. Algorithm : Two Pass Begin read 1st input line if OPCODE = ‘START’ then begin write listing line read next input line end write Header record to object program initialize 1st Text record while OPCODE != ‘END’ do begin if this is not comment line then begin

14. search OPTAB for OPCODE if found then begin if there is a symbol in OPERAND field then begin search ST for OPERAND field then if found then begin store symbol value as operand address else

15. begin store 0 as operand address set error flag (undefined symbol) end end (if symbol) else store 0 as operand address assemble the object code instruction else if OPCODE = ‘BYTE’ or ‘WORD” then convert constant to object code if object code doesn’t fit into current Text record then begin Write text record to object code initialize new Text record

16. end add object code to Text record end {if not comment} write listing line read next input line end write listing line read next input line write last listing line End {Pass 2}

18. In the flowcharts for Pass 1 and Pass 2, we examine each step as a candidate for logical separation. The choices are identified in the shape: “name” is the name assigned to the function(MOTGET, PRINT) Function Name